Impact of fertilisers on drinking water quality in Europe: implications for sustainable agriculture
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.51599/are.2025.11.02.03Keywords:
sustainable agriculture, water quality, mineral fertilisers, environmental impact, nitrate pollution, phosphate contamination, pesticides.Abstract
Purpose. The purpose of the study is to reveal and evaluate the influence of different types of mineral fertilisers on drinking water quality, providing recommendations for mitigating environmental risks in European countries.
Methodology / approach. The approach includes a panel analysis using fixed and random effects models, which allowed the identification of dependencies between fertiliser consumption levels and water quality indicators. The input data for the study covered indicators from 39 European countries, including EU member states, countries with harmonised legislation, and nations in the process of joining the EU. The analysis period covers 2006–2021, ensuring a balanced data panel with the same number of observations for each country over time. Key variables included the amounts of fertilisers (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) used per hectare and capita, as well as food export and import indicators, enabling an estimation of the overall effect of agricultural activity on water quality.
Results. The study results of random effects models demonstrate that pesticide use per unit of cropland area and per capita area positively impacts the Unsafe Drinking Water Index (UDWI). Pooling models indicated fertiliser consumption reduced water safety overall (β = -0.0143, p = 0.0026). Increased nitrogen fertiliser use per hectare demonstrated a slight positive relationship with the UDWI (β = 0.0491, p = 0.048), indicating marginal improvement in water quality. Conversely, phosphate fertilisers (per hectare and capita) had a significant negative impact, with a 1 kg/ha increase associated with a reduction of UDWI by 0.2261 units (p < 0.001) and a per capita increase by 1.2815 units accordingly, underscoring risks to water safety. The intensity of agricultural exports also had a negative impact on drinking water safety, particularly when combined with broader economic export activities (interaction effect β = -0.0147, p < 0.001). In contrast, imports showed a positive relationship with drinking water safety.
Originality / scientific novelty. The novelty of the study lies in identifying a quantitative relationship between mineral fertiliser use in agriculture and drinking water quality in European countries, using panel analysis to develop recommendations for mitigating environmental risks.
Practical value / implications. The study’s findings underscore the need for differentiated policies in managing fertiliser application, particularly recommending stricter regulation of phosphate use due to its pronounced negative impact on drinking water quality. Policymakers should encourage sustainable agricultural practices, such as precision farming and regulated nutrient application, especially in regions with intensive export-driven agriculture. Additionally, fostering the development and adoption of environmentally friendly alternatives, including biopesticides and controlled-release fertilisers, could significantly mitigate the adverse environmental impacts identified in this research.
References
European Union (1991). Council Directive 91/676/EEC of 12 December 1991 concerning protecting waters against pollution caused by nitrates from agricultural sources. Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/1991/676/oj/eng
European Parliament and Council (2000). Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000 establishing a framework for Community action in the field of water policy. Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2000/60/oj/eng.
United Nations (n.d.). THE 17 GOALS of Sustainable Development. Available at: https://sdgs.un.org/goals.
Drechsel, P., Marjani Zadeh, S., & Pedrero, F. (Eds). 2023. Water quality in agriculture: risks and risk mitigation. Rome, FAO & IWMI. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc7340en.
Florez-Peñaloza, J. R., Mahlknecht, J., Escolero, O., Morales-Casique, E., Montaño-Caro, J. C., Blanco-Gaona, S., & Silva-Aguilera, R. A. (2025). Hydrogeochemical evolution of a semiarid endorheic basin with intense agricultural and livestock activities. Journal of Hydrology, 657, 133093. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133093.
Zhang, Y., Dai, Y., Wang, Y., Huang, X., Xiao, Y., & Pei, Q. (2021). Hydrochemistry, quality and potential health risk appraisal of nitrate-enriched groundwater in the Nanchong area, southwestern China. Science of The Total Environment, 784, 147186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147186.
Panneerselvam, B., Muniraj, K., Duraisamy, K., Pande, C., Karuppannan, S., & Thomas, M. (2022). An integrated approach to explore the suitability of nitrate-contaminated groundwater for drinking purposes in a semiarid region of India. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 45, 647–663. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-022-01237-5.
Anh, N. T., Can, L. D., Nhan, N. T., Schmalz, B., & Luu, T. L. (2023). Influences of key factors on river water quality in urban and rural areas: a review. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering, 8, 100424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscee.2023.100424.
Aluculesei, A. C., Gudanescu, N., Ionitescu, S., Dumitrescu, G. C., Moagar-Poladian, S. (2024). Research trends in water management in central and eastern Europe in the circular economy context. Scientific Papers. Series E. Land Reclamation, Earth Observation & Surveying, Environmental Engineering, XIII, 462–472. Available at: https://landreclamationjournal.usamv.ro/pdf/2024/Art54.pdf.
He, S., Li, P., Su, F., Wang, D., & Ren, X. (2022). Identification and apportionment of shallow groundwater nitrate pollution in Weining Plain, northwest China, using hydrochemical indices, nitrate stable isotopes, and the new Bayesian stable isotope mixing model (MixSIAR). Environmental Pollution, 298, 118852. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.118852.
Abascal, E., Gómez-Coma, L., Ortiz, I., & Ortiz, A. (2022). Global diagnosis of nitrate pollution in groundwater and review of removal technologies. Science of The Total Environment, 810, 152233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152233.
Torres-Martínez, J. A., Mora, A., Knappett, P. S. K., Ornelas-Soto, N., & Mahlknecht, J. (2020). Tracking nitrate and sulfate sources in groundwater of an urbanized valley using a multi-tracer approach combined with a Bayesian isotope mixing model. Water Research, 182, 115962. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2020.115962.
Yu, S., Meng, C., Li, Y., Liu, H., Xia, Y., & Wu, J. (2024). The phosphorus export coefficients variability of specific land-use and the threshold response relationship with watershed characteristics in a subtropical hilly region. Science of The Total Environment, 957, 177635. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.177635.
Schoumans, O. F., Chardon, W. J., Bechmann, M. E., Gascuel-Odoux, C., Hofman, G., Kronvang, B., Rubæk, G. H., … & Dorioz, J. M. (2014). Mitigation options to reduce phosphorus losses from the agricultural sector and improve surface water quality: a review. Science of The Total Environment, 468–469, 1255–1266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.08.061.
Galloway, J. N., Townsend, A. R., Erisman, J. W., Bekunda, M., Cai, Z., Freney, J. R., Martinelli, L. A., … & Sutton, M. A. (2008). Transformation of the nitrogen cycle: recent trends, questions, and potential solutions. Science, 320(5878), 889–892. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1136674.
Sutton, M. A., Oenema, O., Erisman, J. W., Leip, A., van Grinsven, H., & Winiwarter, W. (2011). Too much of a good thing. Nature, 472(7342), 159–161. https://doi.org/10.1038/472159a.
Mason, R. E., Craine, J. M., Lany, N. K., Jonard, M., Ollinger, S. V., Groffman, P. M., Fulweiler, R. W., Angerer, J., … & Elmore, A. J. (2022). Evidence, causes, and consequences of declining nitrogen availability in terrestrial ecosystems. Science, 376(6590), eabh3767. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abh3767.
Gu, B., Zhang, X., Lam, S. K., Yu, Y., van Grinsven, H. J. M., Zhang, S., Wang, X., … & Chen, D. (2023). Cost-effective mitigation of nitrogen pollution from global croplands. Nature, 613(7942), 77–84. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05481-8.
van Grinsven, H. J. M., ten Berge, H. F. M., Dalgaard, T., Fraters, B., Durand, P., Hart, A., Hofman, G., … & Willems, W. J. (2012). Management, regulation and environmental impacts of nitrogen fertilization in northwestern Europe under the Nitrates Directive; a benchmark study. Biogeosciences, 9(12), 5143–5160. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-9-5143-2012.
Glavan, M., Železnikar, Š., Velthof, G., Boekhold, S., Langaas, S., & Pintar, M. (2019). How to enhance the role of science in European Union policy making and implementation: the case of agricultural impacts on drinking water quality. Water, 11(3), 492. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11030492.
Zhou, T., Brunetti, G., Ruud, N., Šimůnek, J., Cui, W., Liao, A., Nasta, P., Gao, J., Levintal, E., García, C. P., & Dahlke, H. E. (2025). Simulation of pesticide transport in 70-m-thick soil profiles in response to large water applications. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 489, 137517. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2025.137517.
Jayaraj, R., Megha, P., & Sreedev, P. (2016). Organochlorine pesticides, their toxic effects on living organisms and their fate in the environment. Interdisciplinary toxicology, 9(3–4), 90–100. https://doi.org/10.1515/intox-2016-0012.
Demiraj, E., Duka, I., Brahushi, F., & Shallari, S. (2024). Principal component analysis: an appropriate tool for trophic parameters interaction – application in largest lake in Balkan. Scientific Papers. Series E. Land Reclamation, Earth Observation & Surveying, Environmental Engineering, XIII, 521–526. Available at: https://landreclamationjournal.usamv.ro/pdf/2024/Art60.pdf.
Kekes, T., Tzia, C., & Kolliopoulos, G. (2023) Drinking and natural mineral water: treatment and quality-safety assurance. Water, 15(13), 2325. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15132325.
Hamilton, P. A., & Helsel, D. R. (1995). Effects of agriculture on ground-water quality in five regions of the United States. Ground Water, 33(2), 217–226. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.1995.tb00276.x.
Oubelhas, I., Bouargane, B., Barba-Lobo, A., Pérez-Moreno, S., Bakiz, B., Biyoune, M. G., Bolívar, J. P., & Atbir, A. (2024). Simultaneous recycling of both desalination reject brine water and phosphogypsum waste in manufacturing K2Mg(SO4)2*6H2O fertiliser. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 191, 163–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2024.08.097.
Gahane, D., & Mandavgane, S. A. (2024). Biogenic potassium: sources, method of recovery, and sustainability assessment. Reviews in Chemical Engineering, 40(6), 707–722 https://doi.org/10.1515/revce-2023-0035.
Qu, R., & Han, G. (2023). Potassium isotopes of fertilisers as potential markers of anthropogenic input in ecosystems. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 21, 41–45. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-022-01516-8.
Bilan, Y., Lyeonov, S., Stoyanets, N., & Vysochyna, A. (2018). The impact of environmental determinants of sustainable agriculture on country food security. International Journal of Environmental Technology and Management, 21(5/6), 289. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijetm.2018.100580.
Huzenko, M., & Kononenko, S. (2024). Sustainable agriculture: impact on public health and sustainable development. Health Economics and Management Review, 5(2), 125–150. https://doi.org/10.61093/hem.2024.2-08.
Hinton, R. G. K., Kalin, R. M., Banda, L. C., Kanjaye, M. B., Macleod, C. J. A., Troldborg, M., Phiri, P., & Kamtukule, S. (2024). Mixed method analysis of anthropogenic groundwater contamination of drinking water sources in Malawi. Science of The Total Environment, 957, 177418. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.177418.
Lack, T. (1999). Water and health in Europe: an overview. BMJ, 318, 1678–1682. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.318.7199.1678.
Kesari, K. K., Soni, R., Jamal, Q. M. S., Tripathi, P., Lal, J. A., Jha, N. K., Siddiqui, M. H., … & Ruokolainen, J. (2021). Wastewater treatment and reuse: a review of its applications and health implications. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 232, 208. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-021-05154-8.
Hroma, I. (2024). Interconnection of organic agriculture, health, and sustainability: bibliometric analysis. Health Economics and Management Review, 5(4), 47–74. https://doi.org/10.61093/hem.2024.4-04.
Stehle, S., & Schulz, R. (2015). Agricultural insecticides threaten surface waters at the global scale. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(18), 5750–5755. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1500232112.
Dubrovsky, N. M., Burow, K. R., Clark, G. M., Gronberg, J. M., Hamilton, P. A., Hitt, K. J., Mueller, D. K., Munn, M. D., … & Wilber, W. G. (2010). The Quality of Our Nation’s Waters – Nutrients in the Nation’s Streams and Groundwater, 1992–2004. National Water-Quality Assessment Program. Available at: https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1350/pdf/circ1350.pdf.
Jayaraj, R., Megha, P., & Sreedev, P. (2016). Organochlorine pesticides, their toxic effects on living organisms and their fate in the environment. Interdisciplinary toxicology, 9(3–4), 90–100. https://doi.org/10.1515/intox-2016-0012.
Oaya, C. S., Malgwi, A. M., Degri, M. M., & Samaila, A. E. (2019). Impact of synthetic pesticides utilization on humans and the environment: an overview. Agricultural Science and Technology, 11(4), 279–286. https://doi.org/10.15547/ast.2019.04.047.
Environmental Performance Index (EPI) (n.d.). About the EPI. Available at: https://epi.yale.edu.
Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) (n.d.). Faostat. Available at: https://www.fao.org/faostat.
World Bank (n.d.). World Bank Open Data. Available at: https://data.worldbank.org.
Greene, W. H. (2018). Econometric analysis, 8th ed. Pearson. Available at: https://api.pageplace.de/preview/DT0400.9781292231150_A39514649/preview-9781292231150_A39514649.pdf.
Hsiao, C. (2014). Analysis of panel data, 3rd ed. Cambridge University Press. Available at: https://assets.cambridge.org/052181/8559/sample/0521818559WS.pdf.
Wooldridge, J. M. (2010). Econometric analysis of cross section and panel data, 2nd ed. MIT Press. Available at: https://ipcig.org/evaluation/apoio/Wooldridge%20-%20Cross-section%20and%20Panel%20Data.pdf.
Baltagi, B. H. (2005). Econometric analysis of panel data, 3rd ed. Wiley. Available at: https://library.wbi.ac.id/repository/27.pdf.
Rockström, J., Steffen, W., Noone, K., Persson, A., Stuart Chapin III, F., Lambin, E., Lenton, T. M., … & Foley, J. (2009). Planetary boundaries: exploring the safe operating space for humanity. Ecology and Society, 14(2), 32. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/26268316.
Bellmann, C., & van der Ven, C. (2020). Greening regional trade agreements on non-tariff measures through technical barriers to trade and regulatory co-operation. OECD Trade and Environment Working Papers 2020/04. Paris, OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/dfc41618-en.
Madjar, R. M., Vasile Scăețeanu, G., & Sandu, M. A. (2024). Nutrient water pollution from unsustainable patterns of agricultural systems, effects and measures of integrated farming. Water, 16(21), 3146. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16213146.
